1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to magneto-optical data storage systems. More particularly, this invention relates to an improvement in writing information onto an magneto-optical disc by a magneto-optical disc drive in a high density format.
2. Description of the Related Art
Overview
The demand for mass data storage continues to increase with expanding use of data processing systems and personal computers. Optical data storage systems are becoming an increasingly popular means for meeting this expanding demand. These optical data systems provide large volumes of relatively low-cost storage that may be quickly accessed.
In optical disc systems, coded video signals, audio signals, or other information signals are recorded on a disc in the form of information tracks on one or both planar surfaces of the disc. At the heart of an optical storage system is at least one laser (or other light source). In a first operating mode, the laser generates a high-intensity laser beam that is focused on a small spot on an information track of a rotating storage disc. This high-intensity laser beam raises the temperature of the recording surface of the material above its Curie Point--the point at which the material loses its magnetization and accepts the magnetization of the magnetic field in which the disc is placed. Thus, by controlling or biasing this surrounding magnetic field, and allowing the disc to cool below its Curie Point in a controlled magnetic environment, information may be recorded on the disc in the form of magnetic domains referred to as "pits" on the recording medium.
Subsequently, when the operator desired to reproduce or read the previously recorded information, the laser enters a second operating mode. In this mode, the laser generates a low-intensity laser beam that is again focused on the tracks of the rotating disc. This lower intensity laser beam does not heat the disc above its Curie Point. The laser beam is, however, reflected from the disc surface in a manner indicative of the previously recorded information due to the presence of the previously formed pits, and the previously recorded information may thereby be reproduced. Since the laser may be tightly focused, an information processing system of this type has advantages of high recording density and accurate reproduction of the recorded information.
The components of a typical optical system include a housing with an insertion port through which the user inserts the recording media into the drive. This housing accommodates, among other items, the mechanical and electrical subsystems for loading, reading from, writing to, and unloading an optical disc. The operation of these mechanical and electrical subsystems is typically within the exclusive control of the data processing system to which the drive is connected.
Within the housing of a conventional system that uses disc cartridges, a turntable for rotating a disc thereon is typically mounted on the system baseplate. The turntable may comprise a spindle having a magnet upon which a disc hub is mounted for use. The magnet attracts the disc hub, thereby holding the disc in a desired position for rotation.
In optical disc systems, as discussed above, it is necessary to magnetically bias the disc during a writing operation by applying a desired magnetic field to at least the portion of the disc being heated by the laser during the writing (recording or erasing) operation. Thus, it is necessary to mount a magnetic field biasing device where it may be conveniently placed in close proximity to the disc surface when the disc is held in position by the magnet associated with the spindle.
A variety of media or disc types are used in optical data storage systems for storing digital information. For example, standard optical disc systems may use 51/4 inch disks, and these optical disks may or may not be mounted in a protective case or cartridge. If the optical disc is not fixedly mounted in a protective cartridge, an operator manually removes the disc from the protective case. The operator would then manually load the disc onto a loading mechanism, using care to prevent damage to the recording surface.
Alternatively, for purposes of convenience and protection, a disc may be mounted within an enclosure or a cartridge that is itself inserted into the insertion port of the drive and is then conveyed to a predetermined position. These disc cartridges are well known in the computer arts. The disc cartridge comprises a cartridge housing containing a disc upon which data may be recorded.
Cartridge Loading
To protect the disc when the cartridge is external from the drive, the disc cartridge typically includes at least one door or shutter that is normally closed. The cartridge shutter may have one or more locking tabs associated with it. The corresponding disc drive includes a mechanism for opening the door or shutter on the cartridge as the cartridge is pushed into the system. Such a mechanism may comprise a door link that makes contact with a locking tab, thereby unlocking the shutter. As the cartridge is inserted further into the drive, the shutter is opened to partially expose the information recording medium contained therein. This permits a disc hub to be loaded onto a spindle of a motor or other drive mechanism, and permits entry of a read-write head and a bias magnetic into the protective cartridge. The disc, when rotated by the drive mechanism, permits the read-write head to access all portions of the disc media.
To conserve space in optical storage systems, it is desirable to minimize the size required by the apparatus that loads a disc onto and unloads the disc from a spindle. Conventional loading and unloading devices vary depending upon the type of disc being used. A conventional disc loading and unloading system that uses disc cartridges is typically capable of automatically transporting a disc cartridge from a receiving port onto the spindle. When the disc is no longer required, a conventional disc loading and unloading system automatically unloads the disc from the spindle. A loading device for performing this loading and unloading of the disc is generally constructed so that during disc loading (i.e., when the disc is moved from an ejected position into the player and onto the spindle), the disc is moved horizontally, parallel to the baseplate and turntable, towards the turntable. When the disc has been positioned above the turntable, the disc is lowered vertically, perpendicular to the face of the turntable, onto the spindle. Once on the turntable, a spindle magnet attracts the disc hub fixed to the center of the media, thereby clamping the disc in a rotatable condition for read-write operations.
When an operator is finished using the disc, the operator initiates an eject operation. The most common solution for ejecting a cartridge and disc from a spindle is the technique used in most Japanese drives. In this type of disc unloading apparatus, a cartridge "box" has four pins at its sides, and the pins ride in tracks in an adjacent sheet metal guide. During disc ejection, the cartridge box lifts the disc straight up and off the spindle. The apparatus then moves the disc horizontally, parallel to the baseplate and turntable, towards the disc receiving port in the front of the player. When the disc is thus lifted from the spindle during the unloading operation, it is necessary to generate sufficient upward force on the cartridge to overcome the magnetic clamping force holding the disc hub on the spindle magnet. The peak upward force required to overcome the magnetic clamping force may be produced by the mechanical operation of an ejection lever or by the activation of an electric ejection system.
In conventional electric ejection systems, wherein the disc cartridge unloading apparatus vertically lifts the disc cartridge to break the magnetic force between the spindle magnet and the disc hub, the electric ejection motor must generate a large load to effect removal of the disc cartridge. Consequently, when an operator opts to use the electric ejection system, a large motor having a large torque is required to generate sufficient vertical lifting force. Space must be reserved in the system housing to accommodate this large motor, thereby increasing the overall size of the housing for the cartridge-loading apparatus. In addition, the large motor consumes a considerable amount of power.
It is thus desirable to reduce the complexity of the disc player, while reducing the overall size of the player to facilitate the drive's convenient use in computer applications. In order to be able to receive a 51/4 inch disc cartridge and yet be small enough to be conveniently used in conjunction with a personal computer, optical disc drives must use compact and carefully located mechanical and electrical subsystems. With this in mind, it is desirable to reduce the size of the required ejection motor. One way to effect this result is to reduce the amount of force required to break the magnetic clamping force holding the disc hub on the spindle magnet. By reducing this required force, it is possible to use a smaller ejection motor in the player. It is thus desirable to design a disc loading apparatus wherein the disc is not vertically lifted off of the spindle magnet, but is, rather, "peeled" from the magnet.
A conventional method that attempts to achieve this peeling action has the turntable and spindle swing down away from the disc. This method is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,791,511 granted to Marvin Davis and assigned to Laser Magnetic Storage International. It remains desirable, however, to design a drive wherein the disc is peeled from the spindle magnet.
Focus and Tracking Actuation
In order to attain a precise reading of the information stored on the disc, it is necessary to be able to move the objective lens in both a focusing (i.e., perpendicular to the plane of the disc) or Z direction in order to focus the laser beam to a small point of light on a precise location of the disc to write or retrieve information, and in a tracking (i.e., radial from the center of the disc) or Y direction to position the beam over the exact center of the desired information track on the disc. Focus and tracking corrections may be effected by moving the objective lens in either the direction of the optical axis of the lens for focusing, or in a direction perpendicular to the optical axis for tracking.
In these systems, the position of the objective lens in the focus and tracking directions is commonly adjusted by control systems. Actuators support the objective lens and convert position correction signals from the feedback control systems into movement of the objective lens. Most commonly, these actuators comprise moving coils, stationary magnets, and a stationary yoke, wherein a magnetic field is produced in an air gap between the yoke and magnets. U.S. Pat. No. 4,568,142 issued to Iguma and entitled "Objective Lens Driving Apparatus" illustrates an actuator of this type wherein the actuator includes rectangular magnets positioned within U-shaped yokes. The yokes are spaced from one another with their north poles opposing, in close enough proximity to one another to form a magnetic circuit. A square-shaped focusing coil is bonded to the outsides of a square-shaped lens frame. Four tracking coils are bonded on the corners of the focusing coil. The ends of the focusing coil are then positioned within the air gaps formed by each of the U-shaped yokes so that the focusing coil straddles the yokes. Because the focusing coil must extend around these "center" or "inner" yoke plates, the coil cannot be wound as tightly as desired and the rigidity of the coil construction is compromised. Further, in this type of closed magnetic circuit design, the majority of coil wire is positioned outside the air gaps, significantly reducing the efficiency of the actuator.
In most optical systems, the stiffness of the coil in the air gap has to be very high and the coil decoupling resonance frequency should be above 10 kHz, and is most desirably above 25 kHz. In many types of prior actuator designs, large amounts of coil wire in the magnetic air gap are often required to achieve maximum motor performance. To place such a large amount of coil within the air gap and still conform to the limited space constraints of the actuator design, the coil must be wholly or partially "freestanding", or must be wound on the thinnest bobbin possible. These types of coil configurations have low stiffness and typically decouple at lower frequencies. The dynamic resonance behavior of many actuator designs can also cause the coil to unwind during operation.
Other actuator designs have used the same magnetic air gap to develop focus and tracking motor forces such that the tracking coil(s) is glued onto the focus(s) coil or vice versa, in an attempt to save parts, space, and weight. In these types of designs, the decoupling frequency of the tracking coil(s) glued onto a freestanding focus coil is typically around 15 kHz, significantly below the preferred decoupling frequency.
Focus Sensing
Optical recording and playback systems, such as those utilizing optical memory disks, compact disks, or video disks, require precise focusing of an illuminating optical beam through an objective lens onto the surface of an optical disc. The incident illuminating beam is generally reflected back through the objective lens, and is then used to read information stored on the disc. Subsequent to passing back through the objective lens, a portion of the reflected beam is typically directed to an apparatus designed to gauge the focus of the illuminating beam on the disc. Information extracted from the reflected beam by this apparatus may then be used to adjust the focus of the illuminating beam by altering the position of a movable objective lens relative to the disc.
A number of techniques for detecting the focus of an illuminating optical beam are known. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,423,495; 4,425,636; and 4,453,239 employ what has been termed the "critical angle prism" method of determining beam focus. In this method an illuminating beam reflected from a storage disc is made incident upon a detection prism surface which is set very close to a critical angle with respect to the reflected illuminating beam. When the focus of the illuminating beam on the surface of the disc deviates from a desired state, the variation in the amount of optical energy reflected by the detection prism surface may be used to derive a focus error signal used to adjust the focus of the illuminating beam.
The critical angle prism method generally requires that the orientation of the detection prism surface relative to the reflected illuminating beam be precisely adjusted. This requirement arises as a result of reflectivity characteristic of the detection prism in the neighborhood of the critical angle and makes focus error detection systems based on this method extremely sensitive. The critical angle technique, however, has several disadvantages. First, the focus error signal it produces depends on the light reflection at the interface between the detection prism surface and air. Thus, changes in altitude, which change the index of refraction of the air, can cause false focus readings (offsets) to occur. Also, the critical angle technique is inherently unsuitable for use in differential focus sensing systems.
Differential systems are increasingly important because they allow cancellation of certain types of noise that can occur in optical disc drives. The critical angle method is unsuited to differential operation for two reasons. First, the transmitted beam produced by the sensing prism is compressed along one axis, making it unsymmetrical with the reflected beam. Symmetry of the two beams is preferred in a differential system to optimize the noise-cancellation properties in varied environments. Second, at the point on the reflectivity curve of a critical angle prism where the intensities of the two beams are balanced, the slope is far too low to produce a useful differential focus error signal.
A focus detecting apparatus which requires somewhat less precise adjustment of the optical surface on which the reflected illuminating beam is incident, when compared to the critical angle technique is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,862,442. In particular, the optical surface described therein comprises a dielectric multilayer coating having a reflectivity which varies continuously with respect to the angle of incidence of the reflected illuminating beam. It follows that rotational maladjustment of the surface comprising the multilayer coating will have smaller effect on the value of the focus error signal, but that also the technique will have reduced angular sensitivity. Also, inaccuracies in the focus error signal produced by multilayer dielectric systems may develop in response to relatively slight changes in the wavelength of the reflected illuminating beam. Such sensitivity to wavelength changes is undesirable since the focus error signal is designed to relate solely to the focus of the illuminating beam.
In addition, certain systems using a dielectric multilayer reflecting surface provide focus error signals having only a limited degree of sensitivity. For example, FIG. 37 of U.S. Pat. No. 4,862,442 shows a particular reflectivity characteristic for a layered dielectric reflecting surface, with the slope of the reflectivity characteristic being proportional to the sensitivity of the focus error signal. The disclosed reflected intensity ranges in value from approximately 0.75 to 0.05 over angles of incidence extending from 42 to 48 degrees. This reflectivity change of approximately 10% per degree produces a focus error signal of relatively low sensitivity.
Accordingly, a need in the art exists for an optical arrangement characterized by a reflectivity profile which allows generation of a highly sensitive focus error signal relatively immune to changes in altitude and to chromatic aberration, and which is capable of use in differential systems.
Seek Actuation
Optical data storage systems that utilize a focused laser beam to record and instantaneously playback information are very attractive in the computer mass storage industry. Such optical data storage systems offer very high data rates with very high storage density and rapid random access to the data stored on the information medium, most commonly an optical disc. In these types of optical disc memory systems, reading and writing data is often accomplished using a single laser source functioning at two respective intensities. During either operation, light from the laser source passes through an objective lens which converges the light beam to a specific focal point on the optical disc. During data retrieval, the laser light is focused on the recording medium and is altered by the information of the data storage medium. This light is then reflected off the disc, back through the objective lens, to a photodetector. It is this reflected signal that transmits the recorded information. It is thus especially important that, when information is being written to or read from the memory, the objective lens, and the exiting focused beam, be precisely focused at the center of the correct track so that the information may be accurately written and retrieved.
In order to attain a precise reading of the information stored on the disc, it is necessary to be able to move the objective lens in both a focussing (i.e., perpendicular to the plane of the disc) or Z direction in order to focus the laser beam to a small point of light on a precise location of the disc to write or retrieve information, and in a tracking (i.e., radial) or Y direction to position the beam over the exact center of the desired information track on the disc. Focus and tracking corrections may be effected by moving the objective lens in either the direction of the optical axis of the lens for focusing, or in a direction perpendicular to the optical axis for tracking.
In these systems, the position of the objective lens in the focus and tracking directions is commonly adjusted by control systems. Actuators support the objective lens and convert position correction signals from the feedback control systems into movement of the objective lens. As will be appreciated, failure to focus the light on a small enough area of the medium will result in too large a portion of the disc being used to store a given amount of information, or in too broad an area of the disc being read. Likewise, the failure to precisely control the tracking of the laser light will result in the information being stored in the wrong location, or in information from the wrong location being read.
In addition to translation along the Z axis to effect focusing, and translation along the Y axis to effect tracking, there are at least four additional motion modes for the actuator, each of which reduces the accuracy of the reading and writing operations and is thus undesirable during normal operation of the system. These undesirable modes of motion are rotation about the X axis (an axis orthogonal to both the X direction and the Z direction), or pitch; rotation about the Z axis, referred to as yaw; rotation about the Y axis, called roll; and linear motion along the X axis, or tangential translation. Motion in these directions is often caused by motor and reaction forces acting on the carriage and/or actuator. These modes typically produce undesired movement during tracking or focussing operations which subsequently affects the alignment of the objective lens relative to the optical disc.
Anamorphic, Achromatic Prism System
Optical disc systems often employ an anamorphic prism for adjustment of laser beam ellipticity, for the removal of laser beam astigmatism, and/or for beam steering. References such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,333,173 issued to Yonezawa, et al., 4,542,492 issued to Leterme, et al. and 4,607,356 issued to Bricot, et al. describe using simple anamorphic prisms for beam shaping in optical disc applications.
Frequently, the anamorphic prism systems have an embedded thin film to reflect some or all of a returning beam (reflected from optical media) to a detection system. U.S. Pat. No. 4,573,149 to Deguchi, et al. describes the use of thin films to reflect a return beam to detection systems. Furthermore, the entrance face of the anamorphic prism is often used to reflect the returning beam to a detection system as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,542,492 and 4,607,356. Often, it is advantageous to have multiple detection channels. For instance, in optical disks, one detector may provide data signals and another detector may provide control signals such as tracking and/or focus servo signals.
A typical problem with conventional prisms is that the anamorphic prism suffers from chromatic dispersion which can result in lateral chromatic aberration. In other words, when the wavelength of the light source changes, the resulting angles of refraction through the anamorphic prism also change. These changes result in a lateral beam shift when the beam is focused onto optical media such as an optical disc. In optical disc systems, a small shift in the beam may cause erroneous data signals. For instance, if the shift is sudden and in the data direction, the beam may skip data recorded on the optical disc.
If the light source (e.g., a laser) were truly monochromatic, the chromatic aberration in the prism would not cause a problem. Several factors, however, often cause the laser spectrum to change. For instance, most laser diodes respond with a change in wavelength when the power increases. In magneto-optic disc systems, an increase of power occurs when pulsing the laser from low to high power to write to the optical disc, as is well understood in the art. This increase in laser power often causes a wavelength shift of around 1.5 to 3 nanometers (nm) in conventional systems. Most laser diodes also respond to a change in temperature with a change in the wavelength. Additionally, random "mode-hopping" can cause unpredictable wavelength changes commonly ranging from 1-2 nanometers. RF modulation is often applied to laser diodes operating at read power in order to minimize the effect that "mode-hopping" has on the system. The RF modulation, however, increases the spectral bandwidth and can change the center frequency. Moreover, RF modulation is not generally used when the laser is operating at write power. In a non-achromnatic system, a sudden change in the wavelength of the incident light typically results in a lateral beam shift in the focused spot of up to several hundred nanometers. A lateral beam shift of this magnitude could cause significant errors in the data signal.
Using multi-element prism systems to correct chromatic dispersion is known in the art of optical design. Textbooks such as Warren J. Smith, Modern Optical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1966, pp. 75-77 discuss this idea. Furthermore, some optical disc systems use multi-element anamorphic prism systems which are achromatic. Typical existing multi-element prism systems, however, require the multiple prism elements to be separately mounted. Mounting the multiple elements increases the expense and difficulty of manufacturing because each element must be carefully aligned with respect to the other elements in the system. Small deviations in alignment can cause significant variations in function. This also complicates quality control. Other existing multi-element prism systems have attached elements to form a unitary prism, but these prism systems require that the prism material of each prism be different in order for the system to be achromatic. Finally, existing systems which are achromatic do not provide return beam reflections to multiple detection systems.
Data Retrieval--Transition Detection
For many years, various types of recordable and/or erasable media have been used for data storage purposes. Such media may include, for example, magnetic tapes or disks in systems having a variety of configurations.
Magneto-optical ("MO") systems exist for recording data on and retrieving data from a magnetic disc. The process of recording in a magneto-optical system typically involves use of a magnetic field to orient the polarity of a generalized area on the disc while a laser pulse heats a localized area, thereby fixing the polarity of the localized area. The localized area with fixed polarity is commonly called a pit. Some encoding systems use the existence or absence of a pit on the disc to define the recorded data as a "1" or "0", respectively.
When recording data, a binary input data sequence may be converted by digital modulation to a different binary sequence having more desirable properties. A modulator may, for example, convert m data bits to a code word with n modulation code bits (or "binits") . In most cases, there are more code bits than data bits, that is m&lt;n.
The density ratio of a given recording system is often expressed according to the equation (m/n).times.(d+1), where m and n have the definitions provided above, and d is defined as the minimum number of zeroes occurring between ones. Thus, the RLL 2/7/1/2 code has, according to the above equation, a density ratio of 1.5, while the GCR 0/3/8/9 code has a density ratio of 0.89.
For reading data in an MO system, a focused laser beam or other optical device is typically directed at the recording surface of a rotating optical disc such that the laser beam can selectively access one of a plurality of tracks on the recorded surface. The rotation of the laser beam reflected from the recorded surface may be detected by means of Kerr rotation. A change in Kerr rotation of a first type, for example, represents a first binary value. A change in Kerr rotation of a second type represents a second binary value. An output signal is generating from the first and second binary values occurring at specified clock intervals.
Although there has been a continual demand for disc systems capable of storing increasingly higher data densities, the ability to achieve high data storage densities has met with several limitations. As a general matter, the reasonable upper limit for data density is determined in part by reliability requirements, the optical wavelength of laser diode, the quality of the optical module, hardware cost, and operating speed. Maximum data densities are also affected by the ability to reject various forms of noise, interference, and distortion. For example, the more densely that data is packed, the more intersymbol interference will prevent accurate recovery of data. Moreover, because the technology for many intermediate and high performance optical disc drives has been limited by downward compatibility constraints to older models, signal processing techniques have not advanced as rapidly as they might otherwise have.
When attempting to recover stored data, existing read channels of magneto-optical and other types of disc drives commonly suffer from a number of problems due to the unintended buildup of DC components in the read signal. One cause of DC buildup results from the recording of unsymmetrical data patterns over a number of bytes or data segments. A symmetrical data pattern may be considered as one having an average DC component of zero over a region of interest. Because sequences of recorded bits may be essentially random in many modulation codes, however, localized regions of recorded data having particular patterns of 1's and 0's will produce an unsymmetrical read signal having unwanted DC components. Because the data patterns vary over time, the level of DC buildup will also vary, causing wander of the DC baseline, reduction of threshold detection margins, and greater susceptibility to noise and other interference.
Undesired DC buildup is also caused by variance in pit size due to thermal effects on the writing laser or the storage medium. As the writing laser heats up, for example, the spot size may increase leading to wider pits. When the recorded pits are read, variations in pit size will cause an unsymmetrical input signal having DC components. Variation in pit size not only causes undesired DC buildup but also causes the relative locations of the data to appear shifted in time, reducing the timing margin and leading to possible reading errors.
Various attempts have been made to overcome the described problems. For example, various tape drive systems commonly use a DC-free code such as a 0/3/8/10 code, otherwise referred to simply as an 8/10 code. Because an 8/10 code requires 10 stored bits to yield 8 data bits, however, it is only 80% efficient which is a drawback when attempting to record high data densities.
Another method for handling DC buildup involves the use of double differentiation. This method typically involves detection of the peaks of a first derivative of the input signal by detecting zero-crossings of the second derivative of the input signal. Thus, the DC components are effectively filtered out. One drawback of this method is that differentiation or double differentiation can cause undesirable noise effects. A second drawback is that the method may decrease the timing margin to unacceptably low levels (e.g., by as much as 50 percent).
In another method for addressing DC buildup, the data to be stored is randomized prior to recording such that none of the data patterns repeat over a data sector. This method, however, may not be acceptable by ISO standards and may lack downward compatibility with previous disc drive systems. As a further drawback to this method, de-randomizing the data may be complex.
Yet another method for controlling DC buildup involves the use of so-called resync bytes between data segments. This method generally involves the examination and manipulation of data before it is recorded in order to minimize DC buildup upon readback. Before recording, two consecutive data segments are examined to determine if the patterns of 1's and 0's are such as to cause positive DC, negative DC, or no DC components when read back. If, for example, two consecutive data segments have the same DC polarity, one of the data segments is inverted prior to being recorded on the medium. In order to stay within the constraints of the particular encoding system, however, a resync byte between the segments may need to be written so that the pattern of contiguous bits and of flux reversals is proper. A drawback of such a method is that it will not necessarily reduce all DC buildup, and time constants must be determined such that the predictable DC buildup will not affect performance. Further, the method requires additional overhead including the examination of data segments to determine their relative polarity.
It would therefore be advantageous to have a method and device for reading stored data from a medium without suffering the undesirable effects of DC buildup, without creating unacceptable levels of noise or significantly reducing timing margins, without the requirement of large amounts of overhead or de-randomizing algorithms, and while providing high data storage efficiency.
Data Storage and Other Aspects of Data Retrieval
Recordable/erasable optical disks are currently available for use as data storage media. Magneto-optical recording is the technique commonly used to store the data on and/or retrieve the data from the disc. During recording, a magnetic field orients the polarity of a generalized area on the disc, while a laser pulse heats a localized area thereby fixing the polarity of the smaller area. The localized area with fixed polarity is commonly called a pit. Some encoding systems use the existence or absence of a pit on the disc to define the recorded data as a "1" or "O", respectively. The most commonly used encoding system for this pit-type recording is the run length limited (RLL) 2,7 code because it gives the highest data-to-pit ratio. This type of recording, however, does not lead to higher density because amplitude and timing margins deteriorate very rapidly as frequency is increased.